Welcome to this blog
In here , we will introduce
the SCIENCE and MATHEMATICS.
Both of two thing is important
for your FUTURE.
So,
YOUR
MUST
YOUR
FUTURE
NOW
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Learn circumference, radius, pi and more through music! From the Math Upgrade course at learningupgrade.com
Ahh! Now I totally understand!
God's Stone Witness - The Great Pyramid - Ancient Wonder, Modern Mystery. Who built it? Why was it built? Mathematics and geography as taught in the Great Pyramid.
Science
If you are a student looking for science fair ideas you may be lost. Do not worry because there are so many science fair ideas available both in print and on the web. A student can conduct a simple search online in order to come up with some good science fair ideas. As a student you can also ask your science teacher or other teachers for science fair ideas. A science fair is a competition so you want to either come up with an original idea or put a spin on some traditional science fair ideas in order to show your knowledge and creativity. The judges will be looking for creative and unique science fair ideas in the projects that they are judging. A student who is able to show their hard work in their project will most likely be recognized for it. If you are a student looking for some great science fair ideas you have a variety of resources to use in order to get the science fair ideas you need. Whether it is online, from a book, or advice from a teacher, a student will be able to find a wide variety of great science fair ideas for their science fair project needs. If you are a student and want to get an idea on what science fair ideas are available here are a few that can be used:
A student list of science fair ideas:
-Does a student athlete have better lung capability than a student who does not play a sport?
-Does color affect human behavior?
-How do some foods affect heart rate and what foods can slow or speed it up?
These are just a few simple ideas that you can develop and experiment with for your science project. Even if you choose not to use once of these ideas for your experiment, they may be fun and educational projects to conduct on your own or with your friends. If you are a science teacher and you are looking for some projects to conduct in class, these could also prove useful. Next some more intermediate science projects are listed.
-Building a lemon battery and making it work
-Building a conveyor belt and explaining its concept
-Electrostatic Generator
-Magnetic Fields and experiments to show their concepts
-Building a hover craft
-DNA extraction and experimentation
These projects are slightly more difficult and take more time, challenging the science student while relaying important scientific concepts to them. These projects require more materials, planning and time. A better understanding of scientific concepts is needed in order to recreate any of these projects and successful implement them into your science fair project. When it comes to science fair project ideas there are so many available and this list has barely touched on the hundreds of topics and facets of science that can be utilized to conduct an experiment or explain a concept via a science fair project. With a number of resources to get ideas from, the idea part of the project is not hard at all. Once you have selected your topic then the real work and science can begin.
Source:
http://www.science.org/science-fiction.html
“We all need to curb our carbon output – after all, households constitute 44% of the UK’s emissions” - David Miliband
“harness the Sun and the winds and the soil to fuel our cars and run our factories” - Barack Obama
Due to concerns about the environment, now is the time to make your "Eco-House", eco friendly and reduce your carbon footprint. We can all do our bit for the environment by assessing how we live. Being carbon neutral doesn’t have to involve dramatic lifestyle changes; it can be as simple as;
- Walking to local shops
- turning off lights
- Washing clothes at low temperatures
- Having a showers instead of baths
- Turning Appliances off, not on Standby
- Installing Eco Friendly Products
Soon we will be forced to reduce our Carbon footprint The government is looking to introduce environmental policies to encouage people to be more “Carbon Neutral”. The Carbon Credit Scheme will attempt to reduce the amount of carbon households produce. A Carbon Credit will be given for units of energy The government will reward those who use less Carbon, penalising less energy efficient households. Carbon Zero properties < £500,000 are exempt from stamp duty, saving thousands for potential buyers.
In a few years time a poor household energy rating could make your home difficult to sell. Don’t be caught out, the time to reduce your carbon footprint is now!
The government is also looking into building a number of Eco towns and Eco Villages and a number of building firms now offer Eco Friendly house extensions, at reasonable rates.
This Eco House website aims to show people that being environmentally friendly doesn't have to cost the earth (Pardon the Pun!), you don't have to be a scientist to understand the simple tools and techniques and fun concepts.
It's time to own an Eco Friendly home ! & use eco-house products.
This Eco-website, will look at the following Energy saving, Eco friendly products, materials and services.
- Energy - Solar Power, Photovoltaics, Wind Power & Rain
- Rainwater Harvesting
- Glazing, Insulation and Damp Treatment
- Organic Land, Ponds and Wildlife
- Eco-Home, Eco Freindly Products
- Outside Rooms
- Eco-Products for your Garden
- Crafts & Ethical Jewellery
Source:
http://www.ecohouseagent.com/
Physical science is a challenging field of study. Teaching non-biological information and focusing more on theory is the aim of this discipline. Teaching physical science entails non-living systems. Teaching physical science may be in any number of topics. If you are teaching physical science you should first understand the breakdown of the fields that are in the broad category of physical science. Teaching takes a lot of time, patience and dedication. Because of this those teaching physical science must work hard to convey the concepts in their special field of teaching to their students. Physical science teachers can specialize teaching in any one of these fields of study that are listed below. The description of what they will be teaching follows the topic of physical science.
Physical Science Category List
-Astronomy. Teaching this physical science entails study of the planet, stars, galaxies, and the components and properties of each. This is considered a branch of physics. Within this category there are several sub-topics that can be studied specifically.
-Physics. This is a field that strives to understand nature by teaching individuals to apply established principles and concepts. There is quantum, atomic, nuclear and theoretical branches of physics. Usually those who study physics will choose one of these sub-categories to specialize in.
-Chemistry. Another component of physical science would be chemistry or the study of substances, their components and reactions. Teaching this science would provide students with a basic understanding of the elements, composition of substances and interactions that can occur when two substances are combined. These reactions and elements are governed by scientific laws that help to explain their function and process.
-Earth Science. This is a branch of physical science that can be broken down into many other sub-categories. Teaching earth science could be in anything from geological principles of the earth, to meteorological concepts concerning the weather.
Physical science is only the broad definition of what consists of many different topics. Teaching this science, you have several options as to what discipline you would like to specialize in teaching. Any on of these topics will be a challenging field to enter into your lesson plan. The concepts and theories are often difficult to understand at first, but there are ways to help incorporate the facts into a fun and educational lesson plan.
You can try to insert difficult concepts into a learning game for your students, in order to help them understand and be able to recall those concepts. The theories that are associated with physics especially, can be extremely difficult to remember and apply. Science principles, laws and theories are similar to any other topic in that practice makes perfect. Students will only be able to retain the information if they are applying the concepts in a way that they can understand their uses. Developing the skills of the students in any of these areas of study will take a lot of time and effort but ultimately make them more aware of the world around them and how the things in it work.
Source:
http://www.science.org/physical-science.html
The Study of Earth Science
The Study of Earth Science
Astronomy, Photos Sep 29, 2009
Earth
Earth science is the study of the Earth, and its components. An education in earth science can cover any number of topics. An education in earth science can help one to understand why and how humans utilize the resources that the planet has to offer. All of the natural occurrences, phenomenon, and natural minerals that the planet has to offer are discussed in the education topic of earth science. Those who are interested in this science will learn a world of information pertaining to the function and processes of the events that occur on the planet. The field of earth science which is part of the curriculum at many school is a great way to develop and instill the concepts in the young minds of students in order to create a new generation of geologists, meteorologists, astrologists and oceanographers. An education in earth science will yield the necessary skills and experience for individuals to become any one of these. Earth science education is constantly growing and changing because the planet is also changing constantly. The education in this science strives to stay one step ahead in order to provide students with the most up to date and reliable information that is available. Earth science as a field can be broken down into several categories. These categories are listed below and a career in science can be developed by specializing in any one of these fields.
- Astronomy. In broad and general terms, an education in this earth science field would entail studying the universe and its components. To a more specific degree, individuals who choose this education, can choose to focus on just studying one component of the universe, such as the stars or just the planets. This broad field of astronomy can be broken down into smaller fields of education.
-Geology. This field of earth science deals with an education on the earth. What the earth is made up of, how it works and the nature of its change is studied in this area.
-Oceanography. This field of science is exactly what it sounds like. An education in oceanography will entail studying the ocean, what it contains and how those living things function and live. It also covers the human role in the ocean and what we are responsible for, to preserve it.
-Meteorology. This is the earth science that focuses on the weather. Knowledge in this field will help a student understand more about the earth’s atmosphere, the climate and what are the implications and causes of change within it.
Humans play an important role in earth science. Since the globe is always changing, we need to preserve our home and take care of the resources we have. By gaining an education in any of these fields, one would be better able to begin to understand the value of the earth and its components. Understanding the geographic or climatic changes that occur is useful information. In addition, understanding where our resources are and how to find more resources is definitely useful information, considering the energy situation the globe faces currently.
Source:
http://www.science.org/a-science.html
Math is a part of our lives, whether we clean the house, make supper or mow the lawn. Wherever you go, whatever you do, you are using math daily without even realizing it. It just comes naturally.
Chatting on the cell phone
Chatting on the cell phone is the way of communicating for most people nowadays. It's easy, accessible and cost effective. Every one has a cell phone and it requires a basic knowledge of skill and math. You need to know numbers and how they work, and with today's technology you can do basically everything on your cell phone, from talking and faxing to surfing the Internet.
In the kitchen
Baking and cooking requires some mathematical skill as well. Every ingredient has to be measured and sometimes you need to multiply or divide to get the exact amount you need. Whatever you do in the kitchen requires math. Even just using the stove is basic math skills in action.
Gardening
Even doing something as mundane as gardening requires a basic math skill. If you need to plant or sow new seeds or seedlings you need to make a row or count them out or even make holes. So even without thinking you are doing math. Measuring skills is always needed, and calculations of the essence when doing something new in the garden.
Arts
When doing any form of art you are using math. Whether you're a sculptor, a painter, a dancer or even just doing a collage for fun, you will need to be able to measure, count and apply basic math to it. Every form of art is co-dependant upon math skills.
Keeping a diary
Keeping a diary has become an essential part of our daily lives. We run from place to place and appointment to appointment. Making appointments and having a time schedule that works for you requires math. Without a diary we will crash and burn. Some people even have to make appointments to take some time out. Math is a much needed skill in today's life.
Planning an outing
Every outing you plan needs your math skill. Whether you go to the beach or the zoo is irrelevant. You will plan your way there and you will use your time wisely, math is your guide that will assist you and help you. When driving you need fuel, oil and water, without it your car will break down. All of these require math.
Banking
Can you imagine going to the bank and not having any idea what you need to do or how to manage your finances. This will cause a huge disaster in your life, and you will be bankrupt within hours.
Planning dinner parties
How about that inevitable dinner party or cocktail that you have to host. Planning is essential, how many guests are attending, what foods are you serving, the ambience of the place where you want to host it and so many other essentials all requiring multiplication, division and subtraction.
Decorating your home
Whether you are painting, doing the flooring or just acquiring new furniture, you need math to make your sums add up. Everything you do inside or outside of your home needs math skills. From accessories to a new swimming pool and putting in new lighting.
Statistics
Every basic thing we use in life consist of history. That means statistics. Taking into account the past and the future, and keeping record of what has been done. Without statistics we won't know what worked and what didn't. It helps us to find balance and structure.
by:http://www.mathworksheetscenter.com/mathtips/everydaymath.html
Engineering is a science and a discipline based in the application of scientific knowledge to transform ideas into action to solve real problems. Therefore, because engineering is focused on the real world, the areas of physics and chemistry are common to each branch of engineering, together with mathematics which serves as the tool to create models of the studied phenomena.
The engineering sciences can be related to art, since they require creative ability and imagination to develop what has not yet been created. Then, scientific knowledge is applied in a systematic way to transform that idea into reality. Engineering uses the science as a means, but it is closely linked to experimentation and managing. Its final goal is to achieve results with an optimal use of resources.
This section contains details on what a healthy diet should consist of and
why each vitamin and mineral is an essential part of staying healthy.
The majority of people in this country eat too much fat and
not enough fibre and for most people a healthy diet is simple and easy to do.
The move towards a healthy diet may just mean eating
more fruit, vegetables, bread, cereals, potatoes, and pasta.
People in the UK have a 1 in 3 chance of developing cancer at some time in their lives,
eating a healthy diet, which includes 5 portions of different fruit and vegetables a day
can help reduce the risk of developing heart disease or cancer.
There are 5 basic food groups and a healthy diet consists of eating a variety
of foods from all of the groups but in the correct proportions.
1. Bread, potatoes, pasta, rice, noodles and breakfast cereals.
These foods mostly contain starch and should be the main part of all your meals. If possible try to choose high fibre varieties. This group of foods are an excellent source of fibre and are rich in vitamins from the B complex.
2. Fruit and vegetables.
This includes all frozen, fresh and canned fruit/vegetables as well as salad vegetables. These are all excellent sources of vitamins, minerals and fibre and are naturally low in fat and calories. You should try to eat at least 5 portions of fruit and vegetables every day.
The following is a guide as to how much equals 1 portion:
2 serving spoons of small vegetables, e.g. sweetcorn, peas or mixed frozen vegetables.
1 whole fruit, e.g. like an apple or banana.
1 medium slice of large fruits e.g. melon or pineapple.
2 medium fruits e.g. satsuma’s, plums or kiwi fruit.
1 small bowl of small fruits e.g. strawberries or grapes.
1 medium bowl of salad
2 tomatoes
Half a cucumber
2 serving spoons of green and root vegetables e.g. cabbage, broccoli, carrots or parsnip.
1 glass of fruit juice.
3. Milk and dairy foods.
Milk and dairy products include cheese, yoghurt, milk and fromage-frais. They are rich in protein, calcium, vitamins and minerals. Eat or drink a moderate amount of these foods - about 2 to 3 servings per day. These foods contain a good source of calcium, which is essential to our diet, but as these foods can also be high in saturated fats try to choose reduced fat versions when possible.
4. Meat, fish, poultry and pulses.
Eating fish 1-2 times a week is good for you, especially if you eat oily fish (sardines, mackerel and salmon). All types of meats are included in this category and red meat is an excellent source of iron and vitamin B12, but try to choose the leaner cuts and trim off all visible fat before cooking. Lentils, nuts, peas and beans are also in this food group. Try to use lower fat versions of all these foods whenever possible. You should eat approximately 2 servings from this category each day.
5. Foods containing fats and sugars
This last group contains butter, margarine, cream, ice-cream, low fat spreads, cooking oils, mayonnaise, salad dressings, cakes, biscuits, chocolate, sugary drinks, sweets, pastry foods and crisps. All of these foods tend to be high in fat and calories. Try not to eat these foods too often and when you do only have them in small amounts. If possible try to go for the healthier varieties for example sugar free sweets and low fat crisps.
Here are a few more pointers to guide you on a healthy balanced diet.
The best way to get all the vitamins, minerals and nutrients we need is to eat a variation of foods, no one food can provide us with all we need to keep our bodies healthy.
Alcohol
If you drink alcohol, keep within the limits. Too much alcohol may lead to high blood pressure, cirrhosis of the liver and heart disease. Try to spread your alcohol limits throughout the week and not have them all on one night. For more information on alcohol click here.
Carbohydrates
There are 2 main groups of carbohydrates:
Starch
Starchy foods include breads, potatoes(especially if you eat the skin), rice, cereals and pasta. Starchy foods give us energy and are not high in calories as long as you avoid adding extra fat or sugar to them. For example adding butter to a baked potato, sugar to cereals, or cooking them in fat (e.g.chips).
Sugar
Sugar is not essential in our diet. It just provides us with calories and contains no other nutrients. Too much sugar can rot teeth and lead to excess weight. Cutting sugar out of your diet is one of the easiest ways to cut down calories without losing any nutrients. Try choosing low calorie drinks, cutting sugar out of tea and coffee and avoid eating cakes and sweets.
Fats
A small amount of fat is essential in our diets as it gives us energy but the majority of us eat far too much and should try to cut down.
There are 2 main types of fat.
1. Unsaturated fats (which includes polyunsaturated and monosaturated fats)- In moderation these can help lower cholesterol and help maintain a healthy heart. Good sources of these fats are found in vegetable oils like sunflower, soya or corn, oily fish like mackerel, sardines and pilchards, olive oils, margarines (labelled high in polyunsaturates)and avocado pears.
2. Saturated fats - A diet high in these types of fat will increase your cholesterol levels and also increase the risk of heart disease. These fats are found in high quantities in meat, dairy products like full-fat milk, cheese, and butter, pies, cakes, chocolate and biscuits.
As well as cutting down on fat intake you should try to eat foods containing unsaturated fats instead of saturated fats. You can cut down on your fat intake by reducing the amount of butter and margarine that you use and by avoiding biscuits, cakes and sweets. Try not to fry food, instead bake, grill, poach or microwave. Cut any visible fats off meats before cooking, and remove the skin from chicken and other poultry before cooking.
Fibre
Fibre helps to keep our bowels working regularly and keeps the large intestine healthy. It also provides us with some nutrients too.
Fibre can be found in breakfast cereals, wholemeal or granary bread, fruit and vegetables, wholegrain rice, pasta, potatoes (especially if you eat the skins), beans, pulses and lentils
Protein
Protein is essential for growth, repair and the healing of the body. Protein may be found in meats and poultry, fish, eggs, nuts, beans and lentils.
Salt
Too, much salt causes high blood pressure, can aggravate asthma, lead to stomach cancer or can even lead to kidney failure.
Most of us eat more salt that we need and we should try to cut down. Try to avoid salty snacks like crisps and nuts, do not add salt at the table. Try to add herbs and spices to food instead of salt and cut down on salty foods like ham and bacon. Also beware of ready meals which all contain lots of salt.
Vitamins and Minerals
Vitamins and minerals are essential for good health. The majority of us who maintain a healthy diet will have all the vitamins and minerals we require. If you are eating a varied diet, vitamin and mineral supplements are probably not necessary. If you feel you may have a vitamin or mineral deficiency and you suffer from any illnesses you should always consult your doctor before taking any supplements.
Vitamins
Vitamin A helps cells reproduce normally, it also helps us keep our skin and hair healthy. Vitamin A can be found in leafy green vegetables, liver, dairy products, prunes and apricots. Excess levels of vitamin A can be dangerous during pregnancy.
Vitamin B6 helps form red blood cells and assists in the formation of genetic material. Vitamin B6 can be found in poultry, bananas, kidney beans, liver, bread, spinach and breakfast cereals
Vitamin B9 is also known as folate or folic acid. Vitamin B9 works with vitamin B12 in the formation of red blood cells. Foods high in vitamin B9 include green leafy vegetables, kidney beans, liver, chicken and whole grain breads and cereals. For more information on folic acid click here.
Vitamin. B12 is essential for the proper formation of blood cells and nerve fibres. Rich sources of vitamin B12 include meat, liver, fish, eggs, milk and oysters.
Vitamin C helps absorb iron, protects against infection and keeps blood vessels healthy. Vitamin C can be found in citrus fruits and juices, green vegetables, potatoes, frozen peas and tomatoes.
If you over cook vegetables or boil them in lots of water you will lose the vitamin C.
Vitamin D works with calcium to help prevent bones from thinning. Good sources of vitamin D include oily fish (herrings, mackerel, tinned sardines and pilchards)egg yolks, some margarine and fortified breakfast cereals.
Vitamin E is a fat-soluble nutrient with powerful antioxidant properties. Vitamin E reduces the risk of health problems from cancer to heart disease. Vitamin E also plays a crucial role in promoting overall health and immunity by protecting cell membranes. Vitamin E may be found in green leafy vegetables, wheat germ (bread and cereals), nuts, egg yolks and vegetable oils.
Minerals
Minerals are substances required by the body for a variety of functions. We need some minerals in larger amounts than others. These include calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium and phosphorus. Others minerals such as iron, zinc, iodine, fluoride and selenium are also required but only in small amounts.
Calcium is the main mineral needed for the growth, protection and strength of bones and teeth. Calcium is found in dairy products, green leafy vegetables, canned salmon and brown bread.
Magnesium is present in all tissues including bone tissue. Magnesium is needed for bone, protein and fatty acid formation, making new cells, activating B vitamins, relaxing muscles and clotting blood. Magnesium is found in green leafy vegetables, wholegrain cereals, brown rice and nuts.
Potassium is a major mineral and is essential for the function of cells, including nerve cells. Potassium also helps with the proper function of the heart and kidneys. Potassium is present in bananas, grapes, beans, prunes, raisins, milk and vegetables.
Phosphorus is an essential component of all cells and is present in bones and teeth. Phosphorus can be found in dairy products, meat and fish.
Iron is part of haemoglobin, the oxygen carrying component of the blood. People who have an iron deficiency tire easily, this is because their body is starved of oxygen. Iron can be found in red meats, offal, fortified breakfast cereals, oysters and fish. If you drink a glass of orange juice with meals it will help you absorb more iron.
Zinc is essential for growth and to maintain fertility. Zinc may be found in dairy products, meat, fish, wholegrain cereals and pulses. Zinc can be supportive in the treatment of acne, athlete’s foot, brittle nails, the common cold and minor injuries.
Iodine helps with the formation, protection and function of the thyroid hormones. Iodine can be found in milk, table salt and seafood.
Fluoride helps prevent tooth decay and can help in the prevention of osteoporosis. Flouride can be found in canned fish, tea, cooked spinach and toothpaste.
Selenium promotes normal growth and development and is needed for proper immune function. Selenium can be found in cereals, brazil nuts, fish, red meats, eggs and cheese.
Golden Ratio & Golden Section : : Golden Rectangle : : Golden Spiral
Golden Ratio & Golden Section
In mathematics and the arts, two quantities are in the golden ratio if the ratio between the sum of those quantities and the larger one is the same as the ratio between the larger one and the smaller.
Expressed algebraically:
The golden ratio is often denoted by the Greek letter phi (Φ or φ).
The figure of a golden section illustrates the geometric relationship that defines this constant. The golden ratio is an irrational mathematical constant, approximately 1.6180339887.
Golden Rectangle
A golden rectangle is a rectangle whose side lengths are in the golden ratio, 1: j (one-to-phi), that is, 1 : or approximately 1:1.618.
A golden rectangle can be constructed with only straightedge and compass by this technique:
Construct a simple square - Draw a line from the midpoint of one side of the square to an opposite corner
- Use that line as the radius to draw an arc that defines the height of the rectangle
- Complete the golden rectangle
Golden Spiral
In geometry, a golden spiral is a logarithmic spiral whose growth factor b is related to j, the golden ratio. Specifically, a golden spiral gets wider (or further from its origin) by a factor of j for every quarter turn it makes.
Successive points dividing a golden rectangle into squares lie on
a logarithmic spiral which is sometimes known as the golden spiral.
Image Source: http://mathworld.wolfram.com/GoldenRatio.html
Golden Ratio in Architecture and Art
Many architects and artists have proportioned their works to approximate the golden ratio—especially in the form of the golden rectangle, in which the ratio of the longer side to the shorter is the golden ratio—believing this proportion to be aesthetically pleasing. [Source: Wikipedia.org]
Here are few examples:
Parthenon, Acropolis, Athens.
This ancient temple fits almost precisely into a golden rectangle.
The Vetruvian Man"(The Man in Action)" by Leonardo Da Vinci
We can draw many lines of the rectangles into this figure.
Then, there are three distinct sets of Golden Rectangles:
Each one set for the head area, the torso, and the legs.
Golden Ratio in Nature
Adolf Zeising, whose main interests were mathematics and philosophy, found the golden ratio expressed in the arrangement of branches along the stems of plants and of veins in leaves. He extended his research to the skeletons of animals and the branchings of their veins and nerves, to the proportions of chemical compounds and the geometry of crystals, even to the use of proportion in artistic endeavors. In these phenomena he saw the golden ratio operating as a universal law.[38] Zeising wrote in 1854:
The Golden Ratio is a universal law in which is contained the ground-principle of all formative striving for beauty and completeness in the realms of both nature and art, and which permeates, as a paramount spiritual ideal, all structures, forms and proportions, whether cosmic or individual, organic or inorganic, acoustic or optical; which finds its fullest realization, however, in the human form.
Examples:
A slice through a Nautilus shell reveals
golden spiral construction principle.
by:http://www.world-mysteries.com/sci_17.htm
Mathematics is used in Physical Science to measure objects and their characteristics, as well as to show the relationship between different functions and properties. Arithmetic, algebra and advanced mathematics may be used. Arithmetic consists of simple operations with numbers and values. Algebra is used to show relationships before the measured numbers are used for calculations. Higher math is used for complex relationships between properties.
Questions you may have include:
How is Arithmetic used in Physical Science?
How is Algebra used?
How is higher math used?
This lesson will answer those questions. There is a mini-quiz
Arithmetic conventions
In using Arithmetic, we can add, subtract, multiply and divide numbers. We also use fractions and decimals.
Addition and subtraction
We use the "+" symbol to signify adding two numbers and the "−" symbol for subtractions. The "=" symbol means equals and is the result. Thus, 5 + 2 = 7 is 5 plus 2 equals 7, and 6 − 4 = 2 is 6 minus 4 equals 2.
You perform the operations in the order they are listed: 5 + 2 − 3 is done as 5 + 2 = 7 and then 7 − 3 = 4.
Multiplication and division
We commonly use the "x" symbol to signify multiplication in arithmetic: 2 x 3 = 6. But note that "x" can also be a variable in Algebra and mean something else, so caution must be used. Often people are using * to denote multiplication: 2 * 3 = 6.
In web pages, it is difficult to write the division symbol seen in your textbooks, so "/" is used to denote division: 8 / 4 = 2.
Order listed
Multiplication and division operations are done in the order listed. Thus: 6 * 2 / 3 = 4 is performed as 6 * 2 = 12 and 12 / 3 = 4.
Use of parentheses
When you combine addition and subtraction with multiplication and division, it can get complex. You still go in the order listed, but parentheses must be used to clump together addition and subtraction terms that go together. Operations within parentheses are done first.
5 * 3 + 7 is different than 5 * (3 + 7). With 5 * 3 + 7, the operations are in order, thus we have 5 * 3 = 15 and then 15 + 7 = 22. With 5 * (3 + 7), you combine those within the parentheses first. (3 + 7) = 10 and then 5 * 10 = 50.
Fractions and decimals
3 / 5 is 3 divided by 5, but since that does not conveniently work out, we can designate that as a fraction and write it 3/5.
If you do divide it out, you can write the result as the decimal 0.6. Note that it is a good idea to put the 0 in front of the decimal point to avoid confusion. Writing .6 may easily confused with the number 6, if the person doesn't notice the tiny "." symbol.
Algebra
Algebra uses letters to denote a relationship between characteristics. Usually, they are just abbreviations for the characteristic. For example, energy is denoted by E and velocity by v.
Note that we typically will make the variable in boldface, so that it is easier to distinguish from other items, especially in web pages. Many physics textbooks reserve boldface for vectors.
Multiplication
Although you can multiply numbers using either x or *, such as 2 x 3 or 5*7, letters are often used to designate something that does not yet have a value assigned. A big problem is in algebra, the letter x is often assign to a variable or unknown value. But also using x for multiplication, you might get 2 x x, which is confusing. Even using 2*x, is cumbersome. So, the algebraic standard is just putting the letters together. 2x is 2 times x. xyz is x times y times z. But this way of writing does not follow with numbers. 23x is not 2 times 3 times x. It is 23 times x.
Relationships
Newton came up with the relationship between force, mass and acceleration. His equation says that force equals the mass of an object times its acceleration. To avoid writing out this sentence, we use the symbols F for force, m for mass and a for acceleration. Thus, the equation can be written: F = ma.
This allows us to substitute values for two items and get a value for the third. If m = 3 kilograms and a = 2 meters per second per second, F = 3 * 2 = 6 newtons.
Note that you will often see the equation written as F = ma in textbooks. They try to abbreviate using a multiplication symbol by just putting the variables next to each other, assuming you know they are multiplied. In some books, they use a "." between the symbols. To avoid confusion, we will continue to use "*" as multiplication.
Subscripts
Sometimes you are comparing two or more items with the same characteristic. In such cases, a subscript number or letter can be added to keep things separate. A subscript is a small number or letter after and below the variable.
If you are comparing several forces, you can name one F1, another F2 and so on. Also, we call the force of friction Fr to separate it from another force.
Squares
A square of a number or variable is it multiplied by itself. For example, 3 squared is 3 times 3 and x squared is x times x.
x^2
One way of designating a squared variable is by using ^2. Thus, 3^2 = 9 and x^2 is x squared.
x²
A more common way of writing the square of a number is with the superscript 2: 3² = 3 * 3 = 9 and x² = x*x.
Raised to a power
You can raise a number to a higher power, but not many common physics equations use that: x4 = x*x*x*x. The number 10 raised to a higher power is a handy way to denote large numbers: 106 is 1 followed by 6 zeros = 1,000,000.
Square roots
A square root is just the inverse of squaring a number. If 3² = 9, then the square root of 9 is the number that when multiplied by itself equals 9. In other words, 3 is the square root of 9.
Most numbers do not have a simple square root, so most must be determined with a calculator. For example, the square root of 25 is 5 but the square root of 24 is 4.898979...
The symbol for square root used in textbooks does not work well in web pages, so instead we use SQRT to indicate the operation. Thus SQRT(25) is the square root of 25 and SQRT(v/g) is the square root of the result of v divided by g.
Advanced mathematics
Calculus, differential equations and other advanced mathematics are used in advanced Physical Science calculations and equations. They are beyond the scope of our lessons.
One example of where and why advanced mathematics must be used can be seen in the simple gravity equations. F = m*g is the equation for the force of gravity. But that equation is only an approximation for items falling close to Earth. The actual equation varies inversely as the square of the distance apart and is related to the masses of the bodies.
Summary
Mathematics is used in Physical Science for measurements and to show relationships. Arithmetic consists of simple operations with numbers, and algebra shows relationships--often without numbers. Higher math is used for complex relationships between properties.
by:http://www.school-for-champions.com/science/math.htm
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- Toxicology is the study of hazardous effects of drugs and poisons.
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